The heel-less or no-heel shoe, although quite modern and avant-garde in appearance, has experienced several waves of popularity throughout history. The heel-less shoes of the Middle Ages, termed Chopines, were primarily worn by women in Venice to elevate the wearer above her surroundings and increase her visibility amongst a crowd. Furthermore, Chopines also functioned as shoes which raised the wearer above dirty streets, protecting her from debris and unsanitary conditions. Centuries later, the heel-less shoe resurfaced, promoted by designers like Alexander McQueen and Olivier Theyskens for Nina Ricci and soon became a pervasive design element adopted by many footwear designers such as Jeffrey Campbell.